Glossary · Forensis Lab

Analysis and instruments

chemical fingerprint: The characteristic profile of a product, that is, the substances a chemical analysis detects in it and their proportions; it is used to compare the product with a reference sample, for example an original. Not to be confused with the cryptographic fingerprint of a file.From Forensis Lab In chemical analysis, the fingerprint of the fragrance is laid over that of the original, so that any differences become measurable.See also chromatogram, reference sample, cryptographic fingerprint
chromatogram: The graph produced by a chromatographic analysis: time runs along the horizontal axis and the intensity of the signal up the vertical one. Each separated substance appears as a peak, and together the peaks form the profile of the sample.From Forensis Lab The chemical-analysis report contains the comparative chromatogram, the peak table and the conclusions on conformity.See also peak, retention time, chemical fingerprint
degree of certainty: How strongly a technical conclusion is supported by the findings, taking the limits of the analysis into account. In forensic work it is good practice to state it together with the conclusion, often in words, so that readers know how far they can rely on it.From Forensis Lab The report states the degree of certainty reached, in words, never as a score.See also conforming, non-conforming, inconclusive
gas chromatograph: An instrument that separates the volatile substances in a mixture: a gas carries them along a thin column, which holds each of them back to a different degree, so they come out at different times. The technique is called gas chromatography; the instrument is often connected to a mass spectrometer.From Forensis Lab Gas-chromatograph analysis is carried out at a third-party laboratory, named in the report along with its qualifications.See also mass spectrometry, chromatogram, retention time
ISO/IEC 17025 accreditation: Formal recognition, granted by the national accreditation body (in Italy, Accredia), that a testing or calibration laboratory meets the requirements of the international standard ISO/IEC 17025 for competence, impartiality and the validity of its results. It covers only the tests and calibrations listed in its scope of accreditation.From Forensis Lab The laboratory where the check beside the original takes place is not ISO/IEC 17025 accredited: accreditation is a declared objective.See also report, expert report
marker: A specific substance whose presence, absence or quantity helps to answer a precise question, for example about the origin or composition of a product. This is why analyses look for it specifically.From Forensis Lab Chemical analysis includes a targeted search for substances and markers of interest, according to the technical brief and the applicable method.See also mass spectrometry, spectral library, allergens
mass spectrometry: A technique that turns molecules into charged particles (ions), often breaking them into fragments, and separates the ions according to the ratio of their mass to their charge. The resulting spectrum, characteristic of the substance, helps to identify it, usually by comparison with spectral libraries.From Forensis Lab In chemical analysis, carried out at a third-party laboratory, gas chromatography is coupled with mass spectrometry to identify the separated compounds.See also gas chromatograph, spectral library, peak
peak: In a chromatogram, the spike-shaped signal that appears when a substance leaves the column. Its position in time helps to recognise the substance; its area is related to the quantity present.From Forensis Lab Comparison with the profile of the original can show absent peaks, foreign peaks and altered ratios.See also chromatogram, retention time, reference sample
reference sample: An item of known origin, for example an original product, against which the sample under examination is compared. The purpose of the comparison is to establish whether the two match on the points examined.From Forensis Lab Reference samples used for comparisons have a documented origin.See also sample, conforming, non-conforming
retention timeRT: The time a substance takes to leave the chromatograph's column, measured from the moment the sample is injected and usually expressed in minutes. Under the same conditions the same substance comes out at practically the same time: this is why the retention time helps to recognise it.See also peak, chromatogram, gas chromatograph
sample: The object or portion of material submitted for examination or analysis, for example a bottle or a small amount of its contents. In a comparison it is called the ‘sample under examination’, to distinguish it from the reference sample.From Forensis Lab The sample is numbered, photographed on arrival and sealed; the number stays with it until it is returned.See also reference sample, chain of custody, exhibit
spectral library: An archive of spectra of known substances, for example mass spectra. The spectrum of an unknown substance is compared with those in the archive and a program lists the most similar ones; the result must then be assessed by the person carrying out the analysis.From Forensis Lab In chemical analysis, the main substances are identified by matching against spectral libraries.See also mass spectrometry, gas chromatograph, peak
tolerance: The range within which a measurement may differ from its reference value, above or below, and still be accepted. It exists because no production process makes perfectly identical pieces: small variations within the tolerance are normal.From Forensis Lab The draft protocol classifies each measurement against its tolerance (within, at the limit or beyond), not the product.See also sample, reference sample, collar
ultraviolet lightUV: Radiation invisible to the human eye, with a shorter wavelength than violet light. Under a UV lamp some materials, inks and varnishes give off visible light (fluorescence) and can reveal differences that cannot be seen in ordinary light.From Forensis Lab Beside a genuine example, the bottle is also examined under low-angle light and ultraviolet light.See also reference sample, tolerance

Outcomes and documents

chain of custody: Continuous documentation of who has had custody of an exhibit or a sample, when, where and why, from collection to its final destination (for example, return or destruction). Its purpose is to show that the object has remained the same throughout and that nothing undocumented has been done to it.From Forensis Lab The chain-of-custody record is one of the documents delivered with the expert report.See also exhibit, sample, official record
conforming: An outcome of a comparative analysis: on the points examined, the sample matches the reference samples it was compared with. It says nothing about what was not examined.From Forensis Lab One of the three outcomes of a report, with the degree of certainty the report states.See also reference sample, degree of certainty, non-conforming
cryptographic fingerprint: A fixed-length string of letters and digits, computed from a file with an algorithm such as SHA-256. Changing a single character is enough to change the fingerprint, and in practice nobody can obtain the same one from a different file: comparing it with the original fingerprint shows whether the file has been altered.From Forensis Lab Every report has a fingerprint: the SHA-256 of its JSON file, exactly as issued. Anyone who has the file can recompute it with tools they already have.See also report, JSON schema
inconclusive: An outcome of a comparative analysis in which the findings are not enough to say whether the sample conforms or does not conform to the reference samples. It establishes neither a match nor a difference.From Forensis Lab The report explains why; work moves on to a further level of analysis only with the agreement of whoever requested the analysis.See also conforming, non-conforming, degree of certainty
JSON schema: A document describing the structure a JSON file must have (JSON is a text format for structured data): which fields it contains, what type each one is and which are required. This allows a program to check automatically whether a file complies with it.From Forensis Lab Beyond the signed PDF, every report exists as a structured object conforming to a public JSON schema.See also cryptographic fingerprint, report
non-conforming: An outcome of a comparative analysis: on the points examined, the sample shows significant differences from the reference samples it was compared with. It is a technical finding, not a legal characterisation: any responsibility is for the competent authority to assess.From Forensis Lab The differences are described and documented in the report, which can be passed to your own lawyer or to the competent authority.See also conforming, inconclusive, reference sample
report: A written document setting out the results of an examination or analysis. A technical report states what was examined, who carried out the analysis, by what method and with what outcome.From Forensis Lab The result of the expert examination is a numbered technical report, prepared for use in legal proceedings: the assessment rests with the judge.See also expert report, degree of certainty, cryptographic fingerprint

Law and procedure

court expert: An expert whom the judge in criminal proceedings appoints to carry out an expert examination, choosing them for their particular competence in the subject (art. 221 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure); in civil proceedings the same role belongs to the court-appointed technical consultant. In Italian the court expert is called perito, and in everyday use the word also refers to anyone who prepares an expert report commissioned by a private individual.See also expert report, court-appointed technical consultant, party-appointed technical consultant
court-appointed technical consultantCTU: An expert whom the judge appoints in Italian civil proceedings when particular technical expertise is needed (arts. 61 and 191 c.p.c., Italian Code of Civil Procedure): they carry out the investigations entrusted to them and report on them in writing. The role is similar to that of the court expert in criminal proceedings. The abbreviation stands for the Italian consulente tecnico d'ufficio.See also court expert, party-appointed technical consultant, expert report
exhibit: An object, sample or trace collected during an investigation or a technical examination because it may help to reconstruct what happened; it is identified, described and kept in a way that ensures its integrity. Its documented collection is called evidence recording.From Forensis Lab The exhibit is numbered, photographed on arrival and sealed; the number stays with it until it is returned.See also chain of custody, seizure, sample
expert report: A technical examination entrusted to an expert and, by extension, the written document that sets out its method, results and conclusions: the Italian word, perizia, covers both. In criminal proceedings it is ordered by the judge when specific expertise is needed (arts. 220 and 224 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure); in everyday use the word also refers to an examination requested by a private individual.From Forensis Lab An expert report can only be made with the product in hand.See also court expert, report, court-appointed technical consultant
in and out of court: ‘In court’ describes what takes place before a judge, within legal proceedings; ‘out of court’ describes what takes place outside proceedings, for example in negotiations between the parties, with a formal warning letter or in mediation.From Forensis Lab Parallel-market monitoring, due diligence and trademark protection, including in and out of court.See also party-appointed technical consultant, expert report
Italian Industrial Property Code: The body of Italian rules (d.lgs. 30/2005, Legislative Decree) on industrial property rights, including trademarks and other distinctive signs, patents, designs, geographical indications and confidential business information, and on their protection against infringements such as counterfeiting.From Forensis Lab Technical analysis of possible infringements of trademark rights, for legal counsel to assess.See also counterfeiting, unfair competition, parallel market
Italian legal abbreviations: Abbreviations used in references to Italian law: c.p.p., codice di procedura penale (Code of Criminal Procedure); c.p.c., codice di procedura civile (Code of Civil Procedure); c.c., codice civile (Civil Code); c.p., codice penale (Criminal Code); d.lgs., decreto legislativo (Legislative Decree), an act with the force of law adopted by the Government under powers delegated by Parliament; art. and arts. (artt. in Italian), article and articles.
judicial policePG: The function of finding out about offences, including on its own initiative, preventing them from having further consequences, tracing those responsible and securing the sources of evidence. It is performed by officers and agents of the police forces or of other bodies designated by law, under the direction of the judicial authorities (arts. 55–57 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure). The abbreviation stands for the Italian polizia giudiziaria.From Forensis Lab Technical support as an auxiliary, where formally appointed, from seizure to technical report.See also judicial police auxiliary, seizure, official record
judicial police auxiliary: An expert whom the judicial police call on when carrying out acts or operations that require specific technical skills (art. 348, para. 4, c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure). The person chosen may not refuse to provide their services.From Forensis Lab Technical support as a judicial police auxiliary, where formally appointed: evidence recording, sample selection, quantitative estimate and technical minutes.See also judicial police, technical consultant to the public prosecutor, seizure
misleading advertising: Advertising that may mislead the people it reaches and, as a result, influence their economic choices or harm a competitor. An Italian legislative decree, d.lgs. 145/2007, prohibits it in order to protect businesses and professionals, and allows comparative advertising, which refers to a competitor or its products, only under specific conditions.From Forensis Lab Technical analysis of possible misleading advertising or unlawful comparative advertising, for legal counsel to assess.See also unfair competition, dupe
official record: A written document (in Italian, verbale) that formally records what was done, observed or stated during an operation, with the place, the date and the people present, and is signed by the person who draws it up. In Italian criminal proceedings it is the ordinary way of documenting procedural acts (art. 134 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure).From Forensis Lab The chain-of-custody record is also delivered with the expert report.See also chain of custody, exhibit, seizure
party-appointed technical consultantCTP: An expert appointed by a party to deal with the technical aspects of legal proceedings: they attend the operations of the court-appointed technical consultant or of the court expert and make observations; in criminal proceedings they can also act when no expert report has been ordered (art. 201 c.p.c. and arts. 225, 230 and 233 c.p.p., the Italian codes of civil and criminal procedure). They can also be engaged outside legal proceedings. The abbreviation stands for the Italian consulente tecnico di parte.From Forensis Lab Party-appointed technical consultancy in and out of court, throughout Italy.See also court-appointed technical consultant, court expert, in and out of court
seizure: A measure by which the judicial authorities take goods out of the control of whoever holds them. In criminal proceedings, where in urgent cases the judicial police may also carry it out, it serves mainly to preserve evidence (art. 253 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure) or to prevent the offence from having further consequences (art. 321 c.p.p.).From Forensis Lab On formal appointment by the authorities: evidence recording and sampling of seized goods, quantitative estimate and comparison with the genuine product.See also exhibit, judicial police, official record
technical consultant to the public prosecutor: An expert appointed by the public prosecutor, the member of the judiciary who directs the investigation, for examinations, measurements, photographic records and other technical operations that require specific expertise (art. 359 c.p.p., Italian Code of Criminal Procedure). They may not refuse to provide their services.From Forensis Lab Technical consultancy when appointed by the authority (art. 359 c.p.p.).See also judicial police auxiliary, judicial police, court expert
unfair competition: Conduct by a business that is contrary to the principles of professional fairness and liable to harm a competitor: for example, using names or signs that can be confused with the competitor's, copying its products so as to cause confusion, discrediting it or taking credit for the merits of its products (art. 2598 c.c., Italian Civil Code).From Forensis Lab The technical dossier gathers the technical findings on possible acts of unfair competition, for the brand's counsel to assess.See also misleading advertising, Italian Industrial Property Code, dupe

Product and market

atomiser: The device that releases the product from the bottle; in perfumes it is usually a small pump that sprays it as a fine mist, with a push button and a thin tube that reaches down into the liquid. It is also called a sprayer or vaporiser.From Forensis Lab Among the eight points of the photo check: the shape and finish of the atomiser.See also collar
batch code: A code printed or engraved on the product and its packaging that identifies the production run (the batch) and makes it traceable. For cosmetics, perfumes included, Article 19 of Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 requires the label to show the batch number or another reference that identifies the product.From Forensis Lab Checking product, packaging, labels and batch codes for conformity with the original, across three levels of analysis.See also EAN code, Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009
collar: A ring, usually made of metal or plastic, that covers the neck of the bottle around the atomiser and conceals how it is attached; on many bottles the cap fits onto the collar.From Forensis Lab Among the eight points of the photo check: the geometry of the collar and cap.See also atomiser
counterfeiting: The reproduction or imitation, without the right holder's consent, of a registered trademark or a design; in Italian law the term (contraffazione) also covers, more generally, the infringement of another industrial property right, such as a patent. In everyday language the resulting product is called a ‘fake’.From Forensis Lab Expert reports, trademark protection and training against the counterfeiting of perfumes and cosmetics.See also Italian Industrial Property Code, parallel market, dupe
due diligence: Literally, ‘the care that is due’: a set of thorough, documented checks on a company, a supplier or a transaction, before an agreement or during a business relationship, to assess its reliability and risks. In commerce it may cover, for example, a retailer or a consignment of goods.From Forensis Lab Due diligence on retailers, as part of brand consultancy.See also parallel market
dupe: Short for ‘duplicate’, that is, a copy: a perfume or cosmetic that resembles a well-known product, in its scent or appearance, but is sold under a different name, often with the words ‘inspired by’. It may or may not be lawful: the assessment rests with legal counsel and, in court, with the judge.From Forensis Lab Analysis of testers and dupes, and advice on their possible regulatory breaches.See also counterfeiting, unfair competition, misleading advertising
EAN code: A number, usually 13 digits long, that identifies an article for sale; it is printed together with the barcode scanned at the checkout. It refers to the product reference, that is, the type of product (a perfume in a given size), not to the individual unit. The abbreviation originally stood for European Article Number.From Forensis Lab Among the eight points of the photo check: whether the EAN matches the product reference.See also batch code
parallel market: Trade in genuine products outside the trademark owner's official distribution network, for example products imported from another country. It may or may not be lawful: the assessment rests with legal counsel and, in court, with the judge.From Forensis Lab Parallel-market mapping, product by product, as part of brand consultancy.See also counterfeiting, tester, due diligence
tester: A perfume or cosmetic product supplied to shops so that customers can try it, usually marked as not for sale and in simplified packaging. Reselling it may or may not be lawful: the assessment rests with legal counsel and, in court, with the judge.From Forensis Lab Analysis of how testers circulate in parallel channels.See also parallel market, dupe

Substances and health

allergens: Substances that can cause allergic reactions in some people, for example on the skin. For cosmetics, Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 requires certain fragrance allergens to be indicated in the list of ingredients when they exceed a concentration threshold set by the Regulation.From Forensis Lab Chemical analysis may bring to light any undeclared allergens.See also Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009, gas chromatograph, chemical fingerprint
methanol: The simplest of the alcohols, a colourless liquid used as a solvent; not to be confused with ethanol, the alcohol in perfumes. In cosmetics it is permitted only within the limits and conditions set by Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009, because in excessive quantities it can be harmful.From Forensis Lab Chemical analysis may bring to light any solvents above the permitted limits.See also Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009, gas chromatograph, allergens
Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009: The European regulation on cosmetic products, perfumes included, which has applied throughout the European Union since 11 July 2013. It sets out who is responsible for the safety of a cosmetic, what the label must say and, in its annexes, which substances are prohibited and which are permitted only within limits and conditions.From Forensis Lab Substances detected in the analyses are also assessed in the light of the obligations of this Regulation.See also allergens, methanol, batch code